Draft:Mechanical behavior of battery materials

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In the never-ending search of energy efficiency and sustainability, the development of improved battery technologies is a cornerstone of modern innovation. However, despite the intense pursuit of better energy densities and faster charging capabilities, an often ignored feature of battery design emerges as a significant predictor of performance and longevity: mechanical behavior. The mechanical properties of battery materials, such as tensile strength, fracture toughness, and structural stability, are critical to assuring not just the efficiency and reliability of energy storage systems, but also their safety and longevity.:[1] From lithium-ion batteries that power portable electronics to advanced lithium-sulfur and solid-state batteries for electric vehicles and grid storage applications, the structural integrity and durability of battery components have a substantial impact on their efficiency, longevity, and dependability.[2][3] The underlying ideas, experimental techniques, and research advances pertaining to the mechanical behavior of battery materials will be discussed below, shining light on the problems and prospects in this rapidly growing sector.

Tensile strength and elastic modulus[edit]

[4] Figure 1 The schematic of lithiation and delithiation processes of different silicon-based materials (1) the anode material is fabricated by natural evaporation. The SEI films is continuously destroyed and meanwhile formed because the silicon has a huge volume expansion during the reaction process; (2) the anode material is fabricated by vacuum filtration.

The tensile strength and elastic modulus of battery materials play pivotal roles in determining their performance and durability. Tensile strength refers to the maximum stress a material can withstand before it fractures under tension, while the elastic modulus represents the material's stiffness or resistance to deformation under load. In battery applications, where materials are subjected to various mechanical stresses during assembly, operation, and cycling, these mechanical properties are crucial. For instance, in lithium-ion batteries, electrode materials experience repeated expansion and contraction cycles during charge and discharge, a process termed as lithiation - delithiation[5] Lithium-ion battery. A higher tensile strength helps resist mechanical failure caused by these volume changes, thereby enhancing the battery's durability and lifespan.[6] Additionally, the elastic modulus influences the structural stability of battery components. Materials with a higher elastic modulus can better maintain their shape and integrity under mechanical loads, reducing the risk of deformation or structural damage. This is particularly important in preventing electrode delamination or particle detachment, which can compromise the battery's performance and efficiency over time.[7] Moreover, the mechanical properties of battery materials also impact safety considerations. Weak or brittle materials with low tensile strength may be prone to fracture or thermal runaway under extreme conditions, posing risks of short circuits or thermal runaway events.[8] By contrast, materials with high tensile strength and suitable elastic modulus exhibit improved mechanical robustness, contributing to safer battery designs. In summary, the tensile strength and elastic modulus of battery materials exert significant influences on their performance, durability, and safety. Understanding and optimizing these mechanical properties are essential for advancing battery technology and meeting the demands of diverse applications, ranging from consumer electronics to electric vehicles and grid energy storage systems.

Fracture toughness and crack propagation[edit]

Fracture toughness is a fundamental mechanical property that measures a material's resistance to crack propagation and catastrophic failure under applied stress. It quantifies the energy required to initiate and propagate a crack within the material. In the context of battery materials, fracture toughness plays a crucial role in ensuring structural integrity and preventing catastrophic failures that could compromise performance, safety, and reliability[3]. Battery materials, particularly electrodes and electrolytes, undergo various mechanical stresses during manufacturing, assembly, and operation. These stresses can arise from factors such as thermal expansion and contraction, mechanical deformation, and external impacts. If a crack initiates within a battery material due to these stresses, it can propagate rapidly, leading to irreversible damage or even thermal runaway. Fracture toughness is essential in mitigating this risk by providing a measure of the material's resistance to crack propagation. Materials with high fracture toughness can absorb more energy before crack propagation occurs, effectively resisting fracture and maintaining structural integrity.[9] This property is particularly critical in preventing the spread of cracks within battery electrodes, separators, and other components, as it reduces the likelihood of internal short circuits, electrolyte leakage, and loss of electrical contact. Furthermore, high fracture toughness enhances the mechanical robustness of battery materials, enabling them to withstand mechanical abuse, such as puncture, compression, or bending, without catastrophic failure.[10] This is especially important for applications like electric vehicles, where batteries may experience significant mechanical stresses during vehicle collisions or rough road conditions.

Crack propagation mechanisms refer to the processes by which cracks initiate and propagate within battery materials under mechanical stress, and these mechanisms can have a profound impact on battery lifespan. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for designing durable and reliable battery systems. Here are some common crack propagation mechanisms and their effects on battery lifespan[11]

  1. Volume Expansion-Induced Cracking: In lithium-ion batteries, during charging and discharging cycles, electrode materials undergo significant volume changes due to lithium intercalation and deintercalation. These volume changes can lead to mechanical stress within the electrodes, causing cracks to form and propagate. Continued cycling exacerbates this phenomenon, leading to progressive degradation of electrode integrity and capacity loss, ultimately reducing battery lifespan.
  2. Particle Fracture and Detachment: Battery electrode materials are typically composed of particles bound together in a matrix. Mechanical stresses, such as expansion and contraction during cycling or external impacts, can cause individual particles to fracture or detach from the electrode matrix. This leads to increased internal resistance, loss of active material, and decreased electrode conductivity, all of which contribute to performance degradation and shortened battery lifespan.
  3. Electrolyte Penetration and Dendrite Formation: Cracks in the separator or electrode can provide pathways for electrolyte penetration, facilitating the growth of lithium dendrites.[12] These dendrites can bridge the anode and cathode, causing internal short circuits, thermal runaway, and ultimately, catastrophic failure. The formation and propagation of dendrites are accelerated by crack-induced mechanical stress, significantly reducing battery lifespan and posing safety hazards.
  4. Thermal Stress-Induced Cracking: Fluctuations in temperature during battery operation can induce thermal stress within the electrode and separator materials.[13] Differential thermal expansion and contraction rates between different battery components can lead to the formation and propagation of cracks. These cracks provide additional pathways for electrolyte penetration, accelerate capacity fade, and compromise battery performance and lifespan.
  5. External Mechanical Abuse: Battery materials are susceptible to mechanical abuse from external impacts, vibration, bending, and compression during handling, transportation, and use.[14] Such abuse can lead to the formation of microcracks and delamination within battery components, accelerating performance degradation and reducing battery lifespan.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Stallard, Joe C.; Wheatcroft, Laura; Booth, Samuel G.; Boston, Rebecca; Corr, Serena A.; De Volder, Michaël F.L.; Inkson, Beverley J.; Fleck, Norman A. (May 2022). "Mechanical properties of cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries". Joule. 6 (5): 984–1007. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2022.04.001. ISSN 2542-4351.
  2. ^ Kalnaus, Sergiy; Wang, Yanli; Turner, John A. (April 2017). "Mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of Li-ion battery separators". Journal of Power Sources. 348: 255–263. Bibcode:2017JPS...348..255K. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.03.003. ISSN 0378-7753.
  3. ^ a b Li, Ping; Zhao, Yibo; Shen, Yongxing; Bo, Shou-Hang (2020-04-01). "Fracture behavior in battery materials". Journal of Physics: Energy. 2 (2): 022002. Bibcode:2020JPEn....2b2002L. doi:10.1088/2515-7655/ab83e1. ISSN 2515-7655.
  4. ^ Liao, Dongliang; Kuang, Xuanlin; Xiang, Jiangfeng; Wang, Xiaohong (March 2018). "A Silicon Anode Material with Layered Structure for the Lithium-ion Battery". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 986 (1): 012024. Bibcode:2018JPhCS.986a2024L. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/986/1/012024. ISSN 1742-6588.
  5. ^ Huang, Qizhao; Li, Hong; Grätzel, Michael; Wang, Qing (2013-01-16). "Reversible chemical delithiation/lithiation of LiFePO4: towards a redox flow lithium-ion battery". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 15 (6): 1793–1797. Bibcode:2013PCCP...15.1793H. doi:10.1039/C2CP44466F. ISSN 1463-9084. PMID 23262995.
  6. ^ Zhang, Panpan; Ma, Zengsheng; Jiang, Wenjuan; Wang, Yan; Pan, Yong; Lu, Chunsheng (2016-01-01). "Mechanical properties of Li–Sn alloys for Li-ion battery anodes: A first-principles perspective". AIP Advances. 6 (1): 015107. Bibcode:2016AIPA....6a5107Z. doi:10.1063/1.4940131. ISSN 2158-3226.
  7. ^ Müller, Simon; Pietsch, Patrick; Brandt, Ben-Elias; Baade, Paul; De Andrade, Vincent; De Carlo, Francesco; Wood, Vanessa (2018-06-14). "Quantification and modeling of mechanical degradation in lithium-ion batteries based on nanoscale imaging". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2340. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2340M. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04477-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6002379. PMID 29904154.
  8. ^ Feng, Xuning; Ouyang, Minggao; Liu, Xiang; Lu, Languang; Xia, Yong; He, Xiangming (January 2018). "Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: A review". Energy Storage Materials. 10: 246–267. Bibcode:2018EneSM..10..246F. doi:10.1016/j.ensm.2017.05.013. ISSN 2405-8297.
  9. ^ Clerici, D; Mocera, F; Pistorio, F (2022-01-01). "Analysis of fracture behaviour in active materials for lithium ion batteries". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 1214 (1): 012018. Bibcode:2022MS&E.1214a2018C. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1214/1/012018. ISSN 1757-8981.
  10. ^ Zhu, Xiaoqing; Wang, Hsin; Wang, Xue; Gao, Yanfei; Allu, Srikanth; Cakmak, Ercan; Wang, Zhenpo (2020-04-15). "Internal short circuit and failure mechanisms of lithium-ion pouch cells under mechanical indentation abuse conditions：An experimental study". Journal of Power Sources. 455: 227939. Bibcode:2020JPS...45527939Z. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.227939. ISSN 0378-7753.
  11. ^ Chew, Huck Beng; Hou, Binyue; Wang, Xueju; Xia, Shuman (2014-11-01). "Cracking mechanisms in lithiated silicon thin film electrodes". International Journal of Solids and Structures. 51 (23): 4176–4187. doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2014.08.008. ISSN 0020-7683.
  12. ^ Cao, Daxian; Sun, Xiao; Li, Qiang; Natan, Avi; Xiang, Pengyang; Zhu, Hongli (July 2020). "Lithium Dendrite in All-Solid-State Batteries: Growth Mechanisms, Suppression Strategies, and Characterizations". Matter. 3 (1): 57–94. doi:10.1016/j.matt.2020.03.015. ISSN 2590-2385.
  13. ^ Zhuang, Xuwei; Zhang, Aibing; Wang, Baolin; Wang, Ji (2023-12-02). "Thermal and diffusion induced stresses of layered electrodes in the lithium-ion battery under galvanostatic charging". Journal of Thermal Stresses. 46 (12): 1313–1328. doi:10.1080/01495739.2023.2270001. ISSN 0149-5739.
  14. ^ Liu, Binghe; Jia, Yikai; Yuan, Chunhao; Wang, Lubing; Gao, Xiang; Yin, Sha; Xu, Jun (2020-01-01). "Safety issues and mechanisms of lithium-ion battery cell upon mechanical abusive loading: A review". Energy Storage Materials. 24: 85–112. Bibcode:2020EneSM..24...85L. doi:10.1016/j.ensm.2019.06.036. ISSN 2405-8297.
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