User:DeCausa/summary style

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cultural patronage, reforms and image building[edit]

Main article: Maximilian I's cultural and scientific patronage
Page from Theuerdank, Second Edition. 1519: Coloured by Leonard Beck. Chapter 80: Maximilian's horse is hit by a cannonball and falls.

Maximilian was a keen supporter of the arts and sciences, and he surrounded himself with scholars such as Conrad Celtis, Joachim Vadian and Andreas Stoberl (Stiborius), promoting them to important court posts. He supported and utilized the humanists partly for propaganda effect, partly for his genealogical projects, but he also employed several as secretaries and counsellors.[1] Many of them were commissioned to assist him complete a series of projects, in different art forms, intended to glorify for posterity his life and deeds and those of his Habsburg ancestors.[2][3] He referred to these projects as Gedechtnus ("memorial"),[3][4] which included a series of stylised autobiographical works: the epic poems Theuerdank and Freydal, and the chivalric novel Weisskunig, both published in editions lavishly illustrated with woodcuts.[2] In this vein, he commissioned a series of three monumental woodblock prints: The Triumphal Arch, and a Triumphal Procession, which is led by a Large Triumphal Carriage, created by artists including Albrecht Dürer, Albrecht Altdorfer and Hans Burgkmair. Maximilian dictated large parts of the books to his secretary and friend Marx Treitzsaurwein who rewrote much of the text.[5] Together with the aristocrats and the literati, lawyers and legal scholars became one of three main groups in Maximilian's court.[6][7][8] Among the prominent lawyers and legal scholars who served Maximilian in various capacities and provided legal advices to the emperor were Mercurino Gattinara, Sebastian Brandt and Ulrich Zasius.[9][10]

Maximilian's patronage of German literature included the commissioning of the Ambraser Heldenbuch, an important compendium of German medieval narratives, by Hans Ried,[11][12][13] his support of Ulrich von Hutten whom he crowned as Poet Laureate in 1517 and the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer, who was one of Germany's most important patrons of arts in his own right.[14][15][16][17][18] Maximilian's reign witnessed the gradual emergence of the German common language and his chancery played a notable role in developing new linguistic standards. As a part of his influential literary and propaganda projects, Maximilian had his autobiographical works embellished, reworked and sometimes ghostwritten in the chancery itself. He introduced a style of written language into his chancery which is considered a form of Early New High German. It replaced older forms of written language that were close to Middle High German. This new form was used by the imperial chanceries until the end of the 17th century and therefore also referred to as the Imperial speech.[19]

Under his rule, the University of Vienna reached its apogee as a centre of humanistic thought. He established the College of Poets and Mathematicians which was incorporated into the university.[20] Maximilian also promoted the development of the young Habsburg University of Freiburg.[21][22][23][24] He co-founded, with the Elector of Saxony and the Elector of Brandenburg, respectively, the University of Wittenberg (in 1502) and the University of Frankfurt (in 1506).[25] Maximilian's philosophical interests extended beyond humanism to esotericism. In 1505, he sent Johannes Trithemius eight questions concerning spiritual and religious matters including witchcraft that Trithemius answered and later published in the 1515 book Liber octo questionum (Books of eight questions). Maximilian displayed a skeptical aspect, posing questions such as why God permitted witches and their powers to control evil spirits.[26][27][28]

Maximilian was an energetic patron of the library.[29] Substantial collections came into his possession by inheritance from previous Habsburg rulers,[30][31] and through his marriages to Mary of Burgundy,[32][33] and Bianca Maria.[34] Maximilian commissioned Ladislaus Sunthaim, Jakob Mennel and Johannes Cuspinian to acquire and compose books and his collection would ultimately evolve into the Imperial Library, and as it is named today, the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek or the Austrian National Library).[32][35] Maximilian supported the development of several encyclopaedic works, among them the incomplete projects of Conrad Celtis. The humanist Gregor Reisch, who was also Maximilian's confessor, produced the Margarita Philosophica, "the first modern encyclopaedia of any importance", first published in 1503. The work covers rhetoric, grammar, logic, music, mathematical topics, childbirth, astronomy, astrology, chemical topics (including alchemy), and hell.[36][37]

In the fields of history and historiography, Maximilian and his court preferred the fictional settings and reimagination of history (such as the Weisskunig). Consequently, no outstanding works of historiography (such as those of Molinet and Chastelain at the Burgundian court) were produced.[38] Instead, inventive histories such as those of Trithemius connecting Maximilian to Trojan heroes, the Merovingians and the Carolingians were created.[39][40] He had notable influence on the development of the musical tradition in Austria and Germany as well. Several historians credit Maximilian with playing the decisive role in making Vienna the music capital of Europe.[41][42][43] Under his reign, the Habsburg musical culture reached its first high point[44] and he had at his service the best musicians in Europe.[45]

Maximilian pursued interests in a number of the sciences. Cartography was a point of focus. Dürer and Johannes Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere.[46][47] According to Buisseret, Maximilian could "call upon a variety of cartographic talent unrivalled anywhere else in Europe at that time" (that included Celtis, Stabius, Cuspinianus, Jacob Ziegler, Johannes Aventinus and Tannstetter).[48] Maximilian assigned Johannes Cuspinianus and Stabius to compile a topography of Austrian lands and a set of regional maps. Stabius and his friend Georg Tannstetter worked together on the maps.[49] A related interest was ethnography: Maximilian backed the 1505–1506 voyage to the east of Balthasar Springer to obtain knowledge of the peoples of India.[50][51]

People of Calicut, from the Triumphal Procession.

Maximilian was also concerned with astrology and astronomy and employed Georg Tannstetter to produce yearly practica and wall calendars. In 1515, Stabius (who also acted as the court astronomer), Dürer and the astronomer Konrad Heinfogel produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, also the first printed celestial maps. These maps prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe.[52][53][54][55] In addition to maps, other astrological, geometrical and horological instruments were also developed, chiefly by Stiborius and Stabius.[56][57] Maximilian continued his father's tradition of supporting physicians at court.[58][59][60] He kept on his payroll about 23 court physicians[60] and established eight hospitals in various hereditary lands.[61] Maximilian had an interest in archaeology[62] and supported the archaeological projects of Konrad Peutinger[63] as well as creating his own private collection under his secretary, the humanist Johann Fuchsmagen.[64][65][66][67]

Among some authors, Maximilian has a reputation as the "media emperor". The historian Larry Silver describes him as the first ruler who realized and exploited the propaganda potential of the print press both for images and texts.[68] The reproduction of the Triumphal Arch (mentioned above) in printed form is an example of art in service of propaganda, made available for the public by the economical method of printing (Maximilian did not have money to actually construct it). At least 700 copies were created in the first edition and hung in ducal palaces and town halls through the Reich.[69] He also promoted the association between his own wife Mary of Burgundy and the Virgin Mary, that had already been started in her lifetime by members of the Burgundian court before his arrival.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Michel & Sternat 2012, pp. 31, 32, 34.
  2. ^ a b Watanabe-O'Kelly, Helen (2000). The Cambridge History of German Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-78573-0. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  3. ^ a b Westphal, Sarah (2012). "Kunigunde of Bavaria and the 'Conquest of Regensburg': Politics, Gender and the Public Sphere in 1485". In Emden, Christian J.; Midgley, David (eds.). Changing Perceptions of the Public Sphere. Berghahn Books. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-85745-500-0. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  4. ^ Kleinschmidt 2008, p. 162.
  5. ^ Terjanian 2019, pp. 221–222.
  6. ^ Müller, Jan-Dirk (15 October 2003). "The court of Emperor Maximilian I". In Vanderjagt, A.J. (ed.). Princes and Princely Culture 1450-1650, Volume 1. BRILL. pp. 295–302. ISBN 978-90-04-25352-0. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  7. ^ Brady 2009, p. 113.
  8. ^ . p. 457 https://books.google.com/books?id=M4VUAAAAYAA. Retrieved 29 October 2021. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ Kinney, Arthur F.; Swain, David W.; Hill, Eugene D.; Long, William A. (17 November 2000). Tudor England: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-136-74530-0. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  10. ^ Plessis, Paul J. du (14 December 2015). Reassessing Legal Humanism and its Claims: Petere Fontes?. Edinburgh University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-1-4744-0886-8. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  11. ^ Konzett, Matthias (11 May 2015). Encyclopedia of German Literature. Routledge. p. 449. ISBN 978-1-135-94129-1. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  12. ^ Classen, Albrecht (30 June 2011). Sexual Violence and Rape in the Middle Ages: A Critical Discourse in Premodern German and European Literature. Walter de Gruyter. p. 63. ISBN 978-3-11-026338-1. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  13. ^ Gentry, Francis G.; Wunderlich, Werner; McConnell, Winder; Mueller, Ulrich (2002). The Nibelungen Tradition: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-8153-1785-2. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  14. ^ Walker, Richard Ernest (2008). Ulrich Von Hutten's Arminius. Peter Lang. p. 83. ISBN 978-3-03911-338-5. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  15. ^ Konzett 2015, p. 449.
  16. ^ Posset, Franz (23 April 2021). Catholic Advocate of the Evangelical Truth: Marcus Marulus (Marko Marulić) of Split (1450-1524): Collected Works, Volume 5. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-5326-7870-7. Retrieved 13 November 2021.
  17. ^ Fletcher, Stella (4 February 2014). The Longman Companion to Renaissance Europe, 1390-1530. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-317-88562-7. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  18. ^ Müller & Ziegeler 2015, pp. 84–85.
  19. ^ Wiesinger, Peter. "Die Entwicklung der deutschen Schriftsprache vom 16. bis 18. Jahrhundert unter dem Einfluss der Konfessionen". Zeitschrift der Germanisten Rumäniens (ZGR) (17-18 / 2000 (9th year)): 155–162. doi:10.1515/jbgsg-2018-0014. S2CID 186566355. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  20. ^ Janin, Hunt (2014). The University in Medieval Life, 1179-1499. McFarland. p. 13. ISBN 9780786452019. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  21. ^ European Medieval Drama Council, Société internationale pour l'étude du théâtre médiéval (2002). European Medieval Drama: Papers from the ... International Conference on European Medieval Drama. Brepols. p. 111. ISBN 978-2-503-51397-3. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  22. ^ Scott, Tom (23 March 2016). The Early Reformation in Germany: Between Secular Impact and Radical Vision. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-317-03486-5. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  23. ^ The Cambridge Modern History. Macmillan Company. 1912. p. 325. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  24. ^ Bietenholz & Deutscher 2003, p. 470.
  25. ^ Rashdall, Hastings (1958). The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Italy, Spain, France, Germany, Scotland, etc. Oxford University Press. p. 268. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  26. ^ Behringer, Wolfgang (13 November 2003). Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria: Popular Magic, Religious Zealotry and Reason of State in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-521-52510-7. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  27. ^ Silver 2008, p. 134.
  28. ^ Zambelli, Paola (30 July 2007). White Magic, Black Magic in the European Renaissance: From Ficino, Pico, Della Porta to Trithemius, Agrippa, Bruno. BRILL. p. 63. ISBN 978-90-474-2138-2. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  29. ^ Brechka, Frank T. (6 December 2012). Gerard Van Swieten and His World 1700–1772. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 978-94-010-3223-0. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  30. ^ "1440: Kaiser Friedrich III. und das böhmische Erbe - Österreichische Nationalbibliothek". www.onb.ac.at. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  31. ^ Stam, David H. (2001). International Dictionary of Library Histories. Taylor & Francis. p. 200. ISBN 978-1-57958-244-9. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  32. ^ a b Stam 2001, p. 200.
  33. ^ Heyword, 2003 & 43.
  34. ^ Cite error: The named reference Nationalbibliothek-MaximilianI was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  35. ^ "Timeline - Österreichische Nationalbibliothek". www.onb.ac.at (in German). Retrieved 22 November 2021.
  36. ^ Müller & Ziegeler 2015, pp. 84–88.
  37. ^ Greenberg, Arthur (15 December 2006). From Alchemy to Chemistry in Picture and Story. John Wiley & Sons. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-470-08523-3. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
  38. ^ Golubeva, 2013 & 55–70.
  39. ^ Brann, Noël L. (1 January 1981). The Abbot Trithemius (1462-1516): The Renaissance of Monastic Humanism. BRILL. p. 95. ISBN 978-90-04-06468-3. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  40. ^ Grafton, Anthony; Grafton, Professor of History Anthony (2009). Worlds Made by Words: Scholarship and Community in the Modern West. Harvard University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-674-03257-6. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
  41. ^ Knoch, Wassili Ivanovic (1950). Vienna: The Capital of Music, Volume 6. Wolfrum in Komm. p. 28. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021."Maximilian was responsible for the reputation which Vienna enjoyed as the greatest musical centre of the Middle Ages"
  42. ^ Fichtner 2017, p. 3.
  43. ^ Potter 2014, p. 320.
  44. ^ Kelber, Moritz (2018). Die Musik bei den Augsburger Reichstagen im 16. Jahrhundert (PDF). Allitera Verlag. p. 33. ISBN 9783962330958. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  45. ^ Coelho, Victor; Polk, Keith (2016). Instrumentalists and Renaissance Culture, 1420-1600: Players of Function and Fantasy. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. ISBN 9781107145801. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  46. ^ Crane, Nicholas (16 December 2010). Mercator: The Man who Mapped the Planet. Orion. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-297-86539-1. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  47. ^ Bagrow, Leo (12 July 2017). History of Cartography. Routledge. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-351-51558-0. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  48. ^ Buisseret 2003, p. 55.
  49. ^ Kleinschmidt, Harald (2000). Understanding the Middle Ages: The Transformation of Ideas and Attitudes in the Medieval World. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85115-770-2. Archived from the original on 29 October 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2021.
  50. ^ Noflatscher 2011, p. 236.
  51. ^ Leitch, Stephanie (June 2009). "Burgkmair's Peoples of Africa and India (1508) and the Origins of Ethnography in Print" (PDF). The Art Bulletin. 91 (2): 134–159. doi:10.1080/00043079.2009.10786162. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
  52. ^ Noflatscher 2011, p. 245.
  53. ^ Lachièze-Rey, Marc; Luminet, Jean-Pierre; France, Bibliothèque nationale de (16 July 2001). Celestial Treasury: From the Music of the Spheres to the Conquest of Space. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-521-80040-2. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  54. ^ Nothaft, C. Philipp E. (9 February 2018). Scandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-19-252018-0. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
  55. ^ Hayton 2015, p. 92.
  56. ^ Hayton, 2015 & 98–117.
  57. ^ Kremer, Richard L. (February 2016). "Playing with Geometrical Tools: Johannes Stabius's Astrolabium imperatorium (1515) and Its Successors: Geometrical tools". Centaurus. 58 (1–2): 104–134. doi:10.1111/1600-0498.12112. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
  58. ^ MacDonald, Alasdair A.; Twomey, Michael W.; Twomey, Mw (2004). Schooling and Society: The Ordering and Reordering of Knowledge in the Western Middle Ages. Peeters Publishers. p. 121. ISBN 978-90-429-1410-0. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  59. ^ Siraisi, Nancy G. (26 February 2019). History, Medicine, and the Traditions of Renaissance Learning. University of Michigan Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-472-03746-9. Retrieved 5 November 2021.
  60. ^ a b Benecke 2019, p. 21.
  61. ^ Savinetskaya, Irina (2016). The Politics and Poetics of Morbus Gallicus in the German Lands (1495 - 1520) (PDF). pp. 17, 24, 45. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  62. ^ Wood, Christopher S. (2005). "Maximilian I as Archeologist". Renaissance Quarterly 58. 58 (4): 1128–1174. doi:10.1353/ren.2008.0988. JSTOR 10.1353/ren.2008.0988. S2CID 194186440. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  63. ^ Dos Santos Lopes, Marília (11 May 2016). Writing New Worlds: The Cultural Dynamics of Curiosity in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4438-9430-2. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  64. ^ Wood, Christopher S.; Wood, Professor Christopher S. (15 August 2008). Forgery, Replica, Fiction: Temporalities of German Renaissance Art. University of Chicago Press. pp. 179, 225. ISBN 978-0-226-90597-6. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  65. ^ Jenkins, Simon (4 November 2021). Europe's 100 Best Cathedrals. Penguin Books Limited. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-241-98956-2. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  66. ^ Terjanian 2019, p. 56.
  67. ^ The journal of medieval and early modern studies. Duke University Press. 1998. p. 105. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  68. ^ Silver, Larry (2008). Marketing Maximilian: The Visual Ideology of a Holy Roman Emperor. Princeton University Press. p. 235. ISBN 9780691130194. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
  69. ^ MacGregor, Neil (2014). Germany: Memories of a Nation. Penguin UK. p. 316. ISBN 9780241008348. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2021.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:DeCausa/summary_style&oldid=1064083266"